Steroids Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Steroids - Essay Example In terms of the categories, ergogenic aids can be seen as distributed in terms of mechanical aids, pharmacological aids, physiological aids, nutritional aids and psychological aids (Sports Coach, 1997). All of these categories actually illustrate the fact that the ergogenic aids can be specifically tailored in view of the particular aspect of the being that needs to be enhanced. The most commonly used ergogenic supplements are protein supplements, energy boosters, weight loss agents and anabolic agents etc (Bonci, 2010). It is this category of anabolic agents in which the stubject matter of steroids falls. Steroids constitute two categories namely anabolic and corticosteroids (Dowshen, 2010). Anabolic steroids are the synthetic derivatives of testosterone and are synthetic hormones that boost the muscle production in the body and their strength. While the corticosteroids are drugs that doctors specifically prescribe to control inflammation (Dowshen, 2010). The usage of such steroids is mostly for the purpose of enhancing one’s abilities in the strength dependent sports. Anabolic steroids are the ones that trigger the release of the endogenous growth hormone and induce protein synthesis in the muscle cells whose psychological influence can enhance a more intense and sustained workout. While the complete effectiveness of them in enhancing strength and other factors that influence their effects still have some ambiguity in terms of understanding and cannot even be seen in a proper documented form. The effects of such steroids have not yet been determined correctly with full consensus based on the differences in the approaches being taken for their usage (Mac & Silver, 2001). With the advent of steroids as energy boosters in the sports category, there has always been a question of their effectiveness in terms of athletic

Bipolar Disorder: Roles of neurotransmitters and signal transduction

Bipolar Disorder: Roles of neurotransmitters and signal transduction This systematic review provides a critical insight into the biochemical aetiology of bipolar disorder. It presents an overview of the findings collected from various researches which investigate the abnormalities in neurotransmitter systems and signal transduction system. The results confirm hypothesises established in earlier theories of the causes of Bipolar disorder form pharmacological investigations. However these results are correlation, culmination of these variables and others such as environmental and genetics may influence the development of bipolar disorder. Aims, Evaluation, implications and limitations of these studies are included in this review. Bipolar disorder also known as manic depressive disorder can have a negative effect on an individuals mood, relationships, and everyday life. This disorder can affect the cognitive functions and is known to impair cognitive areas such as attention, executive functions, learning, memory and psychomotor speed. Bipolar usually develops in late teens or early adulthood but can sometimes develop early on in childhood. Symptoms usually build up later on in life. The disorder can lead to poor school performance, damaged social lives and jobs. . It affects both sexes equally in all age groups and approximately 3-5% of the general population are affected (Baldessanni, 2002). Bipolar disorder is the most rigorous forms of all mental illness and is characterized by swinging moods .The clinical course of illness can vary from a mild depression to a rigorous form of mania. The condition has a high rate of recurrence and can lead to suicide if left untreated (15% of patients) this is most likely t o occur during a depressive state. Bipolar disorder is a severely debilitating brain affective disorder which has had very little extensive research conducted on; in particular the biochemistry component of the disorder has had relatively few research studies compared to genetics. Due to its high rate of suicide and reoccurrence rate it is essential to develop effective treatment to prevent the two main problems of bipolar disorder (Shastry, Burker S, 2005). The manifestations of the symptoms are often mistaken for unipolar depression (31%) and therefore misdiagnosis of bipolar often occurs (Berk et al, 2006). Research into the neuropathological aspect paves the way for more future developments in viable treatments, which should be more tolerable for patients for this affective mood disorder, this could include improving existing drug treatments. Although Bipolar is one of the oldest known mental illness it was never classified; the symptoms were described and examined throughout history and sometimes the etiologies which were established were imprudent. Mania was seen as occurring from an excess of yellow bile, or a mixture of black and yellow bile. The theory of a link between mania and depression goes back to the 2nd century AD. Soranus of Ephedrus (98-177 AD) described mania and depression as diseases with different etiologies; however, he acknowledged that many others consider melancholia a form of the disease of mania. Depression was formally known as melancholia. In 1650, a scientist named Richard Burton determined the characteristics of depression in The Anatomy of Melancholia. His findings are still used today in the mental health field, and he is established as being the father of the study of depression.Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926), a German psychiatrist first termed the disease as manic depressive psychosis. He stud ied the disorder in untreated patients. In 1948, Dr. Cade a psychiatrist found out that Lithium Carbonate could be used as a successful treatment of manic depressive disorder. This was the first time a drug had been discovered that proved to be a successful treatment of this condition. The current term bipolar disorder replaced manic depressive disorder in 1980, and featured as diagnostic term in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-III).Most diagnosis of bipolar disorder are based on DSM IV (2000). Due to the complexity of brain function, the aetiology and pathophysiology of the disorder is not very well understood .The debate as to whether it is genetic factors or neurobiological factors which contribute to bipolar disorder is ongoing. Genetics have been known to play a major role in aetiology of bipolar disorder from early on, however many theories suggest neurotransmitter dysfunctions in depression, and therefore maybe the best explanation to finding the cause of Bipolar disorder would be to investigate a chemical basis of the disorder, as this review will examine. The pathophsysiolgy has recently been overtaking research on genetics of bipolar disorder. It would be essential to study the same neurotransmitters which have implicated in cause of depression and the areas affected by medications which alleviate symptoms of manic-depression (Ackenheil, 2001). Theories about neurotransmitter abnormalities in bipolar disorder have been created by experiments which have been created by experiments studying the effects of pharmacological treatments. Lithium was first used 40 years ago to treat bipolar disorder, studies on the effects of lithium, its target and mechanism of action on bipolar patients have indicated mostly monoamine neurotransmitter abnormalities are involved behind bipolar disorder however even though large amounts of research on neurotransmitter abnormalities have been conducted the aetiology of bipolar is far from completely understood. Many patient are unaffected by lithium, this shows that bipolar disorder may have more than one cause maybe this accounts for the various symptoms involved in this disorder. Many models focus on one neurotransmitter or neurotransmitter system as the case of bipolar disorder however these models cannot be sufficient enough to explain the array of symptoms. A valid general theory has to consider opposite effects of activity of neurons leading to the cycle of mood states, this could be a system involving the releases of transmitters, abnormality in cerebral activities or a regulatory protein involved in the interaction of various systems on levels of signal transduction. The debate above provides the basis for this review. To understand the neurochemistry of bipolar disorder the molecular and cellular systems have to be determined. This literature review is organized around the signal transduction pathways and central neurotransmitter systems and convergence of these areas to provide an insight into the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. Neurotransmitters involved in this review are serotonin, dopamine and noradrenalin. The neuroamine exert their action through postsynaptic receptors which are coupled to Guanine nucleotide binding proteins (G proteins). This is the main part of the intracellular signalling mentioned in this review. Other systems which have also been studied are sodium and calcium transport, disturbances in these systems have been implicated in the physiology of bipolar disorder, although this topic is beyond the scope of this review and there is relatively little research compared to G coupled proteins and cyclic AMP system, Given this, and the authors own personal interests, it was decided to focus on G coupled proteins and cyclic AMP system and the other main pathway phosphoinositide. 3. Aims This literature review aims to provide a critical evaluation of the research investigating the structures and circuits involved in the aetiology of bipolar affective disorder. Initially neurotransmitters and signal transduction will be examined and outlined by introducing the most popular and widely-used theories associated with the development of bipolar disorder and explain by what is meant by bipolar. Following this a search protocol is included: an explanation of how the reviewed articles were sourced and analysed. After which will follow a comprehensive review of the studies found in the search about how each neurotransmitter and signal transduction affect bipolar disorder. Also the disagreements and contradictions in the literature will be discussed. The implications and limitations of these findings of the studies found will then be considered and topics for future research presented. 4. Bipolar Affective Disorder 4.1. Diagnostic Criteria There are two types of bipolar disorder; Bipolar I and Bipolar II. Bipolar II consist of symptoms which are not as severe or prolonged as Bipolar I. The criteria for bipolar disorder is complex and is separated into six criteria sets theses are: single manic episode, most recent episode hypomania, most recent episode depressed, most recent episode mixed, most recent episode depressed and most recent episode unspecified. The table below summarizes the main DSM-IV classification (4th edition) criteria for the diagnosis of bipolar I and bipolar II disorder. Table 1 DSM-IV category Criteria Bipolar I Presence of one or more manic or mixed episodes, current or most recent episode: accompanied by one or more depressive episodes .Severe: with psychotic features In partial or full remission: With catatonic features With postpartum onset Current or most recent major depressive episode: significant distress occurs. Depressive state occurs more frequently then mania. Bipolar II No history of manic episode, not as severe as Bipolar I. Characterised by at least one hypomanic episode and depressive episode 4.2. Major depression Depression can distort an individuals way of thinking about themselves, their lives and of other people around them. Individuals who are diagnosed with depression tend to have higher negative views and fail to see the positive in any situation. Depression can also occur as anger. If episodes of low or depressed mood and a decrease in energy, activity, interest, or pleasure occur for two weeks the individual is diagnosed as major depressive ( DSM IV, 2000) 4.3. Mania Mania is the abnormal elevation of emotions, usually occurrence of irritable mood, inflated self esteem and may feature delusions or hallucinations (psychotic symptoms) when symptoms are less severe the patient is experiencing a hypomania episode. Mania can manifest itself in many forms. The DSM-IV splits the severity of mania symptoms into further subgroup for accurate diagnosis: Mild: symptoms barely meet criteria for an episode of mania. Moderate: There is a high increase in either activity level or impaired judgment. Severe without psychotic features: The patient requires continuous supervision to prevent physical harm to self or to others. Severe with psychotic features: The patient has delusions or hallucinations which may be mood-congruent or mood-incongruent. The table below summarises the symptoms of mania and depression Table 2 Mania Depression Need for sleep is decreased Increased talkativeness, pressure to keep talking, hyperactiveness Flight of ideas may be erratic- raving thoughts Incomprehensible speech Excess involvement in pleasurable activities e.g. impulsive sex- potential for painful consequence Having unrealistic beliefs in abilities Increasingly involved in goal relative activities, starting new projects Feeling constantly tired Having problems concentrating, remembering, and making decisions Lack of pleasure in activities Negative thoughts Being restless or irritable Changing eating, sleeping, or other habits (excess sleep usually occurs) Contemplating death or suicide, or attempting suicide. An individual with hypomanic episodes may have increased energy although the symptoms are not as severe as typical mania, the symptoms may come in episodes that last less than a week, do not require hospitalisation and will not be classified as full blown bipolar disorder I. A person having a hypo manic episode may feel they are on a high, be extremely productive, and function well. The individual may not perceive their behaviour as abnormal although these mood swings may be apparent to friends and family members. Without treatment, however, individuals with hypomania may develop severe mania or depression. 4.4. Definition issues Very few patients with bipolar alternate between episodes with pure mania or pure depression, many however have a variety of patterns and are regularly in a mixed state and rapid cycling between mania and depression occurs. Some experience months of depression followed by months of mania, some can swing states in a matter of hours (Berk et al 2005) this is usually defined as bipolar spectrum and can complicate diagnosis. There are unclear boundaries which can limit the selection of appropriate treatment. Accurate diagnosis on basis of clinical interviews may not be possible as many patients at the time of interview are in one phase. The psychotic symptoms reflect the persons extreme mood. For example, if a person is having a manic episode he/she may experience psychotic symptoms such as believing he or she is famous, has a lot of money, or has special powers which may make them invincible , this can be quite dangerous and can lead to death( Bauer, Michael et al, 2002). On the other h and, a person experiencing a depressive episode may believe he or she is ruined and penniless, or has committed a crime which in turn can lead to suicide. Due to these psychotic symptoms in individuals with bipolar disorder are sometimes wrongly diagnosed as having schizophrenia, another severe mental illness that is associated with hallucinations and delusions. People with bipolar disorder may also have other behavioural problems. Many turn to alcohol or substances, others tend to have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or post traumatic stress disorder (Strakowski S.M. et al, 1998) so initially its not easy to recognize these problems as signs of a major mental illness. Individuals with Bipolar disorder sometimes go through states where they exhibit minimal symptoms however they still have the vulnerability for mood deregulation, this state is called euthymia (Strakowski et al.2004). There are no separate criteria for diagnosis of children although it has been stated that bipolar disorder in children is slightly different from bipolar in adults. 4.5. Treatment The treatment for Bipolar I Disorder is usually lifelong therapy with a mood-stabilizer this can be Lithium, Carbamazepine, or Divalproex / Valproic acid often in combination with an antipsychotic medication. Many of these medications are anticonvulsants except for lithium. Anticonvulsants medications help control moods although are usually used to control seizures. An antipsychotic medication and/or a benzodiazepine medication are often added to the mood-stabilizer in mania. In depression, Quetiapine, Olanzapine, or Lamotrigine is frequently taken with the mood-stabilizer. Alternations occur between medications, in depression, the mood-stabilizer is sometimes substituted for another mood-stabilizer, or in some cases two mood-stabilizers can be used together. Occasionally, antidepressant medication is used in depression. However as antidepressant medication can trigger mania, antidepressant medication is always taken in combination with a mood-stabilizer or antipsychotic medication t o prevent mania (Ackenheil, 2001). Research has shown that the most effective treatment for bipolar disorder is a combination of supportive psychotherapy, and the use of a mood-stabilizer and antipsychotic medication (Miklowitz D.J. 2006) 5. Monoaminergic Neurotransmitter systems 5.1. Serotonergic system Serotonin pathways originate in the raphe nuclei and project throughout the cerebral cortex. Serotonin is known to interact with the other neurotransmitters, it modulates different neuronal activities, Serotonin triggers sleep wake cycles, mood and emotional behaviour; deficiency can lead to migraines (Birkmeyer, W. and P. Riederer, 1989) this neurotransmitter increases the threshold for pain, reduces arousal functions, hyperactivity results in improved appetite, weight increase, an increased urge to sleep, lowered consciousness, slower thought processes, and lack of drive, most of which have been shown to be symptoms of depression in bipolar disorder. Serotonergic cell bodies originate mainly in the upper Pons and the midbrain-specifically, the median and Dorsal raphe nuclei, the Candal locus ceruleus, the Postrema area, and the inter peduncular area. These neurons project to the basal ganglia, the limbic system, and the cerebral cortex. (Kaplan et al. 1994). 5.2. Noradrenergic system The Noradrenalin (NA) system originates in the locus coeruleus, lateral tegmental area in the brain stem and projects diffusely through axonal pathways to the cortex, amygdale and hippocampus, in the CNS it is involved in a wide range of neurological and psychological functions, which include cognition, attention, emotion, and memory formation (Robbins and Everitt 1995, Moore and Card 1984). Activation of NA neurons increases cellular responsiveness to sensory information as inhibition of the background activity of the target neurons occurs and also increases the selectivity of the responses to relevant stimuli (Foote et al 1983). NA is also involved in the fight or flight reaction. NA changes the efficiency of the excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission in particular neurons although it is dependent on the subtypes of adrenergic receptor (AR) and secondary messengers (Dohlman Et al 1991). 5.3 Dopamingenic system There are eight major dopaminergic pathways in the brain. The three main pathways originate from the midbrain, they are as follow: Mesolimbic pathway-consists of a bundle of dopaminergic fibres which are associated with the reward circuit. This pathway develops from the ventral tegmental area and innervates various formations of the limbic system, which include the nucleus accumbens. The mesolimbic pathway is involved in memory and is important for motivating behaviours. Mesocortical pathway also originates in the ventral tegmental area, although also projects to the frontal cortex and surrounding areas. Dysfunction in this pathway might be the cause of some of the symptoms such as hallucinations and disordered thinking in bipolar disorder. Medications used to reduce psychotic delirium block this pathway, and also reduce the overall activity of the frontal lobes. Tuberoinfundibular pathway- is located in the hypothalamus and releases dopamine into the portal vessels thus regulating the functioning of the pituitary. These distributed pathways are responsible for behavioural areas such as impulsivity and attention, reward seeking, emotional processing, working memory, and other executive functions. The actions of the neurotransmitter dopamine are usually connected through G-protein-coupled receptor slow transmission, which in turn modulates fast neurotransmission in glutaminergic and GABA- ergic neurones. There are two types of dopamine receptors D1-type and D2-type. D1-type receptors (D1 and D5) are mostly coupled to Gas and then stimulate the production of the second messenger cyclic-AMP (cAMP), whereas D2-type receptors (D2, D3, and D4 included) are coupled to Gai à ¢Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ o and decrease the production of cAMP and related downstream pathway. The various types of dopamine receptors are diffused throughout different areas of the brain (Greengard P. 2001) 6. Signalling transduction 6.1. G- Coupled proteins and Cyclic AMP system G-proteins are an important component of the intracellular signalling pathway; they interlink receptors in the membrane to the different intracellular effecter molecules which in turn produces responses. G-proteins are made up of 3 sub units: an a subunit which binds and hydrolyzes guanosine triphosphate (GTP) these can be further divided into subunits of Gas, Ga, Gaq, Gao and b and g subunits which are firmly bound to one another. Various combinations of protein structures can be established out of these subunits thus creating a number of receptors for different or similar signal transduction systems. Small changes in the subunits of the G proteins can highly alter the order of events in signalling from receptors to the intracellular targets (Birnbaumer L, 1992, Spiegel et al., 1992) These G-protein coupled receptors stimulate or inhibit mainly two second messenger systems: cAMP and Phosphoinositol After receptor activation, G-proteins connect to various effectors (enzymes). This pathway involves coupling of G protein (inhibitory or stimulatory) sub units to enzymes for example adenyl cyclase (AC). Different forms of the enzyme AC catalyze to produce cAMP this is via adenosine triphosphate (ATP).cAMP controls cellular functions such as metabolism and gene transcription.As cAMP degrades quite quickly in the brain by phosphodiesterase binding of cAMP to another enzyme cAMP-dependent protein kinase (as protein kinase A) is used as an indirect measurement of cAMP. This enzyme is critical for connecting any short term changes in neurotransmitter signalling to long term neurobiological changes (Beavo J.A, 1974, Scott JD, 1991). 6.2. Phosphoinositide (PI) Pathway Another signalling path way involved in the coupling of neurotransmitter receptors is phosphoinositide , this pathway involves the phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase (PLC) enzyme, and the G-protein subtypes Gq/G11, (Perez et al ,2000) Hydrolization of inositol-containing phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4, 5-bisphosphate (PIP2) to two important second messengers: 1, 2-diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) is induced by the activation of the receptors which stimulate PLC (Smrcka et al 1991). Inositol monophosphate (IP) is made by conversion of IP3. IP is then again converted into inositol which is then available for resynthesis of PI. Lithium decreases the level of inositol in the brain, it blocks the conversion of IP to inositol by interfering with inositol monophosphate phosphatise conversion of IP to inositol. 7. Theories There have been a number of theories of depression and mania separately. The main neurotransmitter system implicated in the development of bipolar disorder is the serotonin system and is still the most widely studied system; however there is evidence suggesting that other neurotransmitter systems also play important roles (Barros et al. 2002). The biogenic amine theory of depression (Bunney and Davis 1965; Schildkraut 1965) is based upon a link between pharmacological alterations (medications taken by Bipolar patients) of monoamines and modulation of affective disorders. Decreasing amine neurotransmitters (noradrenalin (NA) and serotonin (5-HT) in the synaptic clefts) leads to an increased incidence of bipolar affective disorder. Another theory suggests that antidepressants alter the concentration of neurotrophic factors which are essential for neuronal survival (Duman et al, 1997; Duman, 2002). Although recently it has been suggested that instead of being a simple case of depletion in some crucial cerebral transmitter; concentrations depression may be the result of a disturbed balance between various regulatory systems, which may lead to transmitter over activity in some brain regions (Syvà ¤lahti 1994). Another hypothesis by Harro Oreland (1996) the neurobiological aetiology of depression may lie in the alteration of the noradrenergic innervations from the locus coeruleus, which, in turn, may lead to dysfunction of serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission. Theories associated with the Multicomponent, cellular signalling pathways suggest that the interaction at various levels is important, which form complex signaling networks essentially allowing the cell to obtain, process, and respond to information (Bourne HR, Nicoll R,1993, Weng G et al, 1999). The cascades of signals are assisted by these networks in a matter of milliseconds, they are crucial for physiological processes as they can alter the strength and duration of outputs and feedback. Thus abnormalities in these pathways may have variety of affects in different neurological disorders (Bhalla U.S. 1999). Patients treated with antidepressants have increased activation of cAMP system in particular regions of the brain. This causes the high expression rate of the transcription factors that are involved in this system (cAMP response element binding protein- CREB) which leads to the increased expression of neutrophic factors in hippocampus and cerebral cortex neurons theses neurotrophic factors are essential for survival and functioning of certain neurons these studies have lead to the molecular and cellular theory of depression. 8.Method 8.1. Search protocol A breakdown of how the search was conducted is presented in Figure 1 below: Less detail Level of detail in search more detail Start Time of search finish Keywords Bp = Bipolar Disorder S= Serotonin D= Dopamine N= Neurotransmitter ST= Signal Transduction NA= neuroadrelaline GP= G proteins PI= Phosphoinositide cAMP= cAMP pathway 8.2. Selection method Articles were searched on several journal databases these included web of knowledge, Science Direct and Medline. Key words were chosen to assist with the search. Key words included: signal transduction, neurotransmitters, bipolar disorder, mania, serotonin, dopamine, noradrenalin and depression. Articles were selected by at first by reading the abstract and deciding whether the article was directly answering or related to the review question. If this link was established, the article was considered as having passed the first stage of screening Once all databases had been searched for those articles that passed stage one screening, further analysis was carried out. Articles werent excluded on basis of country of origin or date of publishing. Many studies incorporated different factors for example 8.3. Articles excluded Certain articles which were found within the search protocol were not included in this literature review. There is a large amount of literature investigating the genetic links to neurotransmitter receptors and bipolar disorder that purely focused on this factor although articles that purely focused on this factor were not included in the review. 9. Findings Direct and indirect methods which have been used in the studies include: brain studies, CSF studies, platelet studies and psychopharmacological have all been included in this review as it is difficult, to measure the chemical and physiological activity within the brain in vivo. Peripheral lymphocytes share many common characteristics with neuronal cells thus considered suitable models for testing various hypothesises. Lymphocytes have various neurotransmitter receptors on their cell membrane 9.1.Neurotransmitter studies Noradrenergic system has been shown to be involved in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. In depressive states, noradrenergic system has under functioned these results from these studies are taken from indirect measurements of noradrenalin metabolism in body fluids. Measuring desmthylimipramine, the growth hormone secretion shows estimate activity of noradrenergic neurons in the brain (Laakmann et al 1990). Abnormalities in the level of noradrenalin in plasma of patients has been observed which support the hypothesis that this neurotransmitter is involved in the aetiology of bipolar disorder , in subjects with mania the concentrations of NA has been increased ( Manji, Lenox, 2000) also the metabolite of noradrenalin (-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol -MHPG) has been established to be higher concentration in the urinary and cerebrospinal fluid of mania state than in depressive state ( Goodwin et al, 1990, Bowden CC 1997, Schatzberg AF et al 1995, Manji et al 1997). These were all longitudinal studies and therefore had higher validity compared to studies only examining one state of mood in bipolar disorder. Higher values were also noted in unipolar depression compared to bipolar depression (Goodwin FR, Jamison KR 1990, Manji et al 2000). Lower noradrenalin output and altered sensitivity of a2 receptor activity have been discovered in depressive states this has been indicated by the lowered growth hormone response to clonindine leading to a decrease in noradrenalin activity compared to in maniac state where noradrenalin release is increased (Delgado, 2000; Manji Lenox, 2000). Increased levels of a2 receptors in the hypothalamus, amygdale, hippocampus and cerebellum have also been reported (Delgado 2000, Young et al 1994, Vawter M.P et al 2000,). Another group of studies on serotonin and serotonin metabolism have shown that a lower concentration of the serotonin metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) was found in bipolar disorder patients, particularly in aggressive bipolar patients and those who have attempted or contemplated suicide but were raised in patients with mania (Manji Lenox, 2000, Traskman et al 1981, Swann et al 1983, Asberg et al, 1984). Smaller numbers of serotonin uptake sites were also found in post mortem brains of depressed individuals with bipolar disorder ( Leake et al, 1991) other drug studies on Tryptophan, an essential amino acid on which serotonin synthesis is dependent on have established that prescribing tryptophan to patients with depression may sometimes result in the reversal of the therapeutic effect of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor administration and depression may reoccur, this suggests that serotonin levels in brains of bipolar disorder patients may not be the only cause of this disorder. Extensive results from CSF experiments, serotonin receptor and re uptake site binding studies, pharmacologic studies have been achieved which support the theory that alterations of serotonergic neurotransmission in depressive states occur (Goodwin et al 1990, Maes et al 1995, Garlow et al 1999). In studies of CSF 5-HIAA in patients with bipolar disorder in mania episode has generally produced inconsistent and conflicting results (Goodwin 1990, Shiah et al 2000). Most studies found no difference in levels of CSF 5-HIAA levels between depressed state and manic state, two reported both manic and depressive states have lowered CSF 5-HIAA levels and one reported manic have significantly lowered levels of CSF 5-HIAA compared to control subjects. More research in this area needs to be conducted in order to achieve consistent results (Goodwin, 1990). Maes et al (1995) and Garlow et al (1999) researches found decreased concentration of radioligand binding to the serotonin transporter which is involved in taking up serotonin from the synaptic cleft. These results were found both in platelets and mid brain of depressed subjects. Positron emission tomography (PET) studies have also reported decreases in 5-hydroxytryptamine (5- HT)1A receptor binding potential in the raphe and hippocampus and amygdala of the brains of depressed patients, especially in patients with bipolar and in unipolar patients with history of bipolar in their family, indicating a genetic link ( Drevets, 1999) To produce a more direct measurement of serotonergic system function neurotransmitter depletion models are used in the case of bipolar disorder tryptophan depletion to lower serotonin levels is used. Serotonin synthesis is dependent on Tryptophan, an essential amino acid. Depletion of tryptophan is created by the Australia: Inflation, Balance of Payment and Monetary Policy Australia: Inflation, Balance of Payment and Monetary Policy What is the main measure of inflation movements in Australia and what does it represent? CPI refers to the Consumer Price Index and is used as the primary measure of inflation movements within Australia over time. CPI can be defined as a measure of how the prices of goods and services change over time. It is a measure of overall cost a typical consumer pays for the purchase of goods and services. A larger increase in CPI represents an inflationary trend in the economy and decrease in CPI shows deflationary situation. It also helps in comparing the inflation patterns with other countries of the world. CPI can be calculated using the following formula: Inflation refers to the persistent rise in the general price level in the economy. Rising inflation negatively affects the purchasing power of a typical consumer, therefore, a typical family has to spend more to maintain his existing standard of living. We can estimate the rate of inflation in the following way: Where: refers to Inflation rate in the current financial year. refers to CPI in the preceding financial year. refers to CPI in the current financial year. CPI is considered as a benchmark inflation guide for the Australian economy The balance of payment is a record of monetary transactions between Australia and the rest of the world- it is made up of two accounts. What are the names of the accounts and what do they measure? Balance of payment keeps track of inflow and outflow of money from the economy of a country. It consist of two main accounts:- Current Account Capital Account Current Account The current account measures trade flow in and out of the country. In other words, it represents country’s exports and imports. It consist of following three components. Trade in goods and services Net Foreign Income Current Tranfer/Foreign aid Trade in Goods and Services The most important component of the current accounts is the balance of trade showing the country’s imports and exports of goods and services. If exports are larger than imports, it is a balance of trade surplus and if exports are fewer than imports shows a balance of trade deficit. Net foreign Income If local companies or individuals of a country (let say Australia) purchase bonds and stocks in other countries, the money will come into the country in the form of interest and dividend payments and will add to the net foreign income. On the other hand, the money that leaves the country in the form of interest payments and dividends to foreign investors, royalties paid by the subsidiaries (located in Australia) to their overseas head offices decreases the total net foreign income. Current transfer / Foreign Aid Grants/ donation and workers (foreigners) send money to their home countries. Current Account Surplus and Deficit Current account surplus means that country is earning more than spending or in other incoming money (credits) exceeds outgoing money (debit). It means the country has more money to lend to other countries. Whereas, the current account deficit shows that the spendings of a country are higher than income/earnings. Capital Account It tracks the movements of funds for investment into and out of the country the capital account consist of four main components such as: Direct investment: Portfolio Investment Government Capital Official Reserve Direct investment: It refers to the foreign direct investment when the investor acquires ownership and control over these assets. Portfolio Investment It represents money that flows into and out of the country for the purchase of financial assets like stocks and bonds, whereas, the payment of the dividends and interest from these foreign investments will be the part of the current account and will not be counted towards capital account. Government Capital It refers to the Government borrowing from and repayments to overseas countries. Official Reserve The net foreign exchange transactions of central banks. Capital Account Surplus and Deficit The capital account surplus means more inflow of foreign capital into the country in the form of investments and the capital account deficit shows outflow of foreign capital from the country for investments compared to the domestic investment. A capital account surplus is usually being balanced by the current account deficit and vice versa. Together, these accounts constitute Balance of Payment (BOP), because of their offsetting nature the complete understanding of these two accounts is crucial for traders. How does the Reserve Bank of Australia, Institute monetary policy? Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA) was constituted under the Reserve Bank Act 1959, and is responsible for preparation and carrying out of monetary policy. By definition monetary policy has been a process by which the monetary authority holds the provision of money, often targeting interest rates to achieve economic targets of low inflation and long term growth stability. Objectives of Monetary policy In setting monetary policy RBA is responsible to maintain the pursuit: Stability of Australian currency Full Employment Economic Prosperity and welfare of the people of Australia. In order to achieve above mentioned objectives, the Reserve Bank of Australia sets a targeted official cash rate (interbank overnight rate). The cash rate adjustments influence the other interest rate in the economy, expectations of community, exchange rate and ultimately involve the pace of rising prices (inflation rate). The appropriate target inflation rate agreed by RBA and Govt is at 2 to 3 percent on average over the cycle, as this rate will not materially affect the spending and investment patterns in the economy. As monetary policy is a means of influencing the economy by controlling the supply of money. By Act of Parliament RBA can manage the quantity of circulation of money through changing cash rate, buying and selling Govt securities and by making changes to statutory reserve deposits. The RBA usually meets once in every month, examine the health of the economic system as a whole and by reviewing the checklist of different economic indicators both domestic and international to decide on their monetary policy. Any decision/changes needed at the conclusion of the meeting, then communicated publicly. There are two types of monetary policies which are as follows: Expansionary monetary policy: It stimulates production and employment through an increase in the supply of money on credit in the market. The RBA can implement this policy by decreasing the cash rate or lowering reserve requirements in order to promote borrowing and spending in the economy. Small businesses often benefit with the execution of the expansionary monetary policy, but it has some drawbacks like decrease in value of currency, raise in inflation, output shortage, higher demands of wage etc. The objective of the RBA is to balance the available money to interest rate in order to ensure expansionary effect on the economic system. Contractionary Monetary policy: The primary aim of this type of policy is to draw out money out of the economic system to prevent the rising prices, decrease consumer spending and increase the value of currency. The activities through which RBA tightens monetary policy includes decreasing the official cash rate or by increasing the reserve requirements from other banks make it harder for consumers and investors to borrow money and persuade them not to drop more money. A monetary contraction further stabilize the prices of goods as inflation goes down. This policy slows down production because there is reduce demand for their products. An investor can also plan to cease planned expansion and this may cause unemployment in the future. What are the implications of rising or high inflation? In simple language inflation means an overall increase in prices of goods and services in the economy or decrease in the purchasing power of money over time. Inflation is caused by an increase in demand for commodities and services strongly outweighs the supply of commodities and services in the economy. Inflation rate can easily be calculated on monthly or yearly basis by applying the CPI. Inflation rate in Australia as reported by the Australian Bureau of Statistic is 2.9% in the first three months of 2014, up from 2.7 percent in the previous quarter but still it is below market forecasts. This cost increase was primarily due to seasonal increases in the cost of health care, school fees, transport and by large increases in tobacco duties. Impact of High Inflation on the Economy: High inflation is harmful to the economy as it moves in many ways such as: Distort Consumer Behavior: Consumer purchases their future required goods in advance because of the fear of price increase this can create a sudden shortage of goods in the market. Higher Wage Demands: Prices increase lead to higher wage demand as the fixed income earners require more money to keep their previous living standard. This process is called wage-price spiral. Greater Uncertainity: During inflation, rapid fluctuation in inflation rate can undermine business confidence. As it makes difficult for business organizations to accurately determine prices for their products and their returns from investment i.e. budgeting and investment valuation become difficult Firms may postpone their investment expansion because of lower consumer spending and this will adversely affect the economic growth in the economy. Savings Decrease: At high inflation times, people spend more money to keep their previous living standard therefore least amount they keep. As savings in the economy decrease less loanable funds are available for the firms to invest. Unemployment Rise: When the firms decide to curtail their current production or lay off their planned expansions they will not hire more workers this leads to lower job opportunities available in the economy. Damage to Export Competitiveness: Due to high inflation, the production cost of goods rise and their export will become less competitive in the international marketplace. This has an adverse result on the Balance of payments. Social Unrest: High inflation lead to a general feeling of discomfort for households as their purchasing power is falling and they have to postpone many of their desires. Hoarding in Economy Increase: Rapid increase in prices can sometime result in hoarding of basic commodities to gain more profit margins. What is the main economic indicator of growth in the economy? Economic indicator shows in which the direction of the economy is going. There are three primary types of economic Indicators i.e Leading, Coincident and Lagging indicators. In monitoring the economic growth and health, Govt, reserve bank (RBA) and other economist not only observe one indicator, simply stick with a large no domestic and of key economic indicators like inflation, GDP, inflation, Employment, wages, consumer an international d investment spending, interest rate, Balance of payment, Exchange rate etc. But the most comprehensive measure of economic performance is GDP (Gross Domestic Product). It is the best measure as it includes the output of all sectors and gives overall performance of the economy. It is likewise applied to evaluate the quality and success of Govt policy to attempt to attain the target economic growth. GDP by definition is the total value of all final goods and services produced in a country within a year. There are two methods normally applied to calculate GDP: Expenditure Approach Income Approach Expenditure Approach:- The total amounts spent on the goods a and services produced in a nation by households, firms, Govt and foreigners. Households consumptions (C) include all spending for the consumption of goods and services, business firms also consumes product in the form of investment (I) in capital goods. Capital goods means the tools and technology firms purchase to use in the production. Govt also consume products in the form of infrastructure goods (roads, bridges), services like education (public schools), health care (old age/poor persons medical coverage). Foreigners when purchase our nations goods (X) it increase GDP in the form of and when our other nation purchase other countries (M) products it decreases nations GDP. The formula to calculate GDP by expenditure Approach:- GDP = C + I + G + ( X – M ) Income Approach In an economy in different ways, such as rentals (Land), Wages depending on skilled /unskilled Capital income (Interest income from their savings at banks or other savings institutions) and in of profits from managing their own businesses (Enterpreurship). If we add all these types of incomes, we get the total of the nations income. The formula to calculate GDP by income approach is given below. GDP = Rentals (R) + Wages (W) + Interest (I) + Profits (P) For the economy as a whole total Income is equal to total expenditure because every dollar spend by a buyer is a dollar income for a seller. The limitations of using GDP as economic indicator:- GDP does not count for volunteer work which people do freely. People work freely in schools, hospitals etc.. GDP didnt include the effect of rebuilding after a natural disaster or war. Rebuilding increase the GDP. GDP does not consider the quality of goods. The consumer may go for cheap/low quality goods instead of expensive one this may lead to repetitive buying as of low quality aspect. More buying pattern affects the affect the GDP. Nevertheless despite of its few limitations economist uses GDP as to assess whether the purchasing ability of the nation increase / decline in the economy and also to quantify the relative growth, wealth and prosperity of different countries.

Downfall Of The American Dream in The Great Gatsby :: The Great Gatsby

Authors use symbolism in their written expressions in order to enhance the thematic interests of the novel. The use of symbolism allows the reader to interpret the story, which in turn, stimulates a more personal, imaginative, and meaningful experience. Scott F. Fitzgerald’s, The Great Gatsby, became an instant classic because of the symbolism used to enhance the theme throughout the novel. Without this symbolism, the theme of the withering American Dream would have been less than adequate, and the book would have never attained the status and popularity among readers that it does today. The most prominent and influential symbols are the green light, Gatsby’s shirts, and the Valley of Ashes. When Gatsby is first seen, “he stretched out his arms toward…a single green light, minute and far way, that might have been the end of a dock.';(Fitzgerald 26) The green light that he appears to be reaching for is the light on Daisy’s dock. In Gatsby’s early life he had a romantic relationship with Daisy. However, he went away to war and when he came back she was married to an extremely wealthy man, Tom Buchanan. Gatsby concluded in his own mind that in order to win Daisy’s love, he too had to become wealthy. After he established himself financially, he bought a house directly across the water from Daisy and her green light. He associates Daisy with the green light, and it becomes a symbol of her throughout the novel. “The whole being of Gatsby exists only in relation to what the green light symbolizes.';(Bewley 41) Gatsby becomes so infatuated with the green light that it is almost as if Daisy does not even exist. She becomes no more than a romant ic dream within the green light on the dock. At last he realizes this when he and Daisy meet and, while staring at the green light, link arms. He finally attains what he thought he wanted and the green light becomes no more than a green light. This false sense of reality brings Gatsby great melancholy when he realizes that Daisy is not as great as he thought she was. This is similar to the feelings immigrants were overcome by when they reached America. They had been told their whole lives that America was the land of opportunity and that the streets were paved with gold, but when they got there they realized it wasn’t all that different from the homeland which they so eagerly deserted.

Mission Statement For Apple Inc.

The company I choose to follow for the next 5. 5 weeks is Apple Inc.. They were founded on April 1, 1976 butt was incorporated on January 3, 1977. The founders were Steve Jobs and Steven Wozniak (Sanford, 2013). Apple Inc. mission statement is â€Å"Apple designs Macs, the best personal computers in the world, along with OS X, iLife, iWork and professional software. Apple leads the digital music revolution with its iPods and iTunes online store. Apple has reinvented the mobile phone with its revolutionary iPhone and App Store, and is defining the future of mobile media and computing devices with iPad† (Apple Inc. 2013). When you look at a mission statement especially in this case, Apple Inc. mission statement acts as a guide to the company’s internal efficiencies because it shows all that they have accomplished as for products and services that they give to their clients and customers. Apple Inc. is rated number 6 on the fortune 500 list and they are number 6 because their missions statement makes their internal efficiencies for developing the cutting edge products and innovations. They to are always upgrading their models with either new versions or allowing downloads of the latest software so their products don’t go out of date. The only on that can define the future direction of Apple Inc. , is that of the internal efficiencies of the company for the change in its internal efforts. When you look at their mission statement their efforts are based on the products that they offer. If they have a new innovation from their efficiency and efforts internally than it can also build and re-word their mission statement. Their internal efforts are what makes their mission statement and why they are the leaders in technology. No efforts have gone with out recognition. When you think of Apple Inc. , you think of 100% their mission statement. I personally am an apple user on all levels. I use to never understand a Mac, Mp3 player or now an Ipod let alone an Ipad. However, the two founders had a dream and goals. Those dreams and goals were effectively brought out by the internal efforts and efficiencies of what they founded. They are the leaders in technology and have competitors following in their footsteps. I am interested in the future mission statement of Apple Inc. and how their efforts and efficiencies internal can make that statement grow and grow. I wonder when Siri will make her debut on the mission statement. Siri is a good example of Apple Inc. , efforts internally for being the leader, best, reinventing and creating the future in technology. All this is from the credit of their internal company. Apple Inc. (2013). Frequently asked questions. Retrieved from http://investor.apple.com/faq.cfm?FaqSetID=6 Sanford, G. (2013). Apple-history. Retrieved from http://apple-history.com/h1

John Donne and Reformation

John Donne was born in Bread Street, London in 1572 to a prosperous Roman Catholic family – a precarious thing at a time when anti-Catholic sentiment was rife in England. His father, John Donne, was a well-to-do ironmonger and citizen of London. Donne's father died suddenly in 1576, and left the three children to be raised by their mother, Elizabeth, who was the daughter of epigrammatist and playwright John Heywood and a relative of Sir Thomas More. [Family tree. ] Donne's first teachers were Jesuits. At the age of 11, Donne and his younger brother Henry were entered at Hart Hall, University of Oxford, where Donne studied for three years. He spent the next three years at the University of Cambridge, but took no degree at either university because he would not take the Oath of Supremacy required at graduation. He was admitted to study law as a member of Thavies Inn (1591) and Lincoln's Inn (1592), and it seemed natural that Donne should embark upon a legal or diplomatic career. In 1593, Donne's brother Henry died of a fever in prison after being arrested for giving sanctuary to a proscribed Catholic priest. This made Donne begin to question his faith. His first book of poems, Satires, written during this period of residence in London, is considered one of Donne's most important literary efforts. Although not immediately published, the volume had a fairly wide readership through private circulation of the manuscript. Same was the case with his love poems, Songs and Sonnets, assumed to be written at about the same time as the Satires. Having inherited a considerable fortune, young â€Å"Jack Donne† spent his money on womanizing, on books, at the theatre, and on travels. He had also befriended Christopher Brooke, a poet and his roommate at Lincoln's Inn, and Ben Jonson who was part of Brooke's circle. In 1596, Donne joined the naval expedition that Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, led against Cadiz, Spain. In 1597, Donne joined an expedition to the Azores, where he wrote â€Å"The Calm†. Upon his return to England in 1598, Donne was appointed private secretary to Sir Thomas Egerton, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, afterward Lord Ellesmere. Donne was beginning a promising career. In 1601, Donne became MP for Brackley, and sat in Queen Elizabeth's last Parliament. But in the same year, he secretly married Lady Egerton's niece, seventeen-year-old Anne More, daughter of Sir George More, Lieutenant of the Tower, and effectively committed career suicide. Donne wrote to the livid father, saying: â€Å"Sir, I acknowledge my fault to be so great as I dare scarce offer any other prayer to you in mine own behalf than this, to believe that I neither had dishonest end nor means. But for her whom I tender much more than my fortunes or life (else I would, I might neither joy in this life nor enjoy the next) I humbly beg of you that she may not, to her danger, feel the terror of your sudden anger. 1 Sir George had Donne thrown in Fleet Prison for some weeks, along with his cohorts Samuel and Christopher Brooke who had aided the couple's clandestine affair. Donne was dismissed from his post, and for the next decade had to struggle near poverty to support his growing family. Donne later summed up the experience: â€Å"John Donne, Anne Donne, Undone. † Anne's cousin offered the couple refuge in Pyrford, Surrey, and the couple was helped by friends like Lady Magdalen Herbert, George Herbert's mother, and Lucy, Countess of Bedford, women who also played a prominent role in Donne's literary life. Though Donne still had friends left, these were bitter years for a man who knew himself to be the intellectual superior of most, knew he could have risen to the highest posts, and yet found no preferment. It was not until 1609 that a reconciliation was effected between Donne and his father-in-law, and Sir George More was finally induced to pay his daughter's dowry. In the intervening years, Donne practised law, but they were lean years for the Donnes. Donne was employed by the religious pamphleteer Thomas Morton, later Bishop of Durham. It is possible that Donne co-wrote or ghost-wrote some of Morton's pamphlets (1604-1607). To this period, before reconciliation with his inlaws, belong Donne's Divine Poems (1607) and Biathanatos (pub. 1644), a radical piece for its time, in which Donne argues that suicide is not a sin in itself. As Donne approached forty, he published two anti-Catholic polemics Pseudo-Martyr (1610) and Ignatius his Conclave (1611). They were final public testimony of Donne's renunciation of the Catholic faith. Pseudo-Martyr, which held that English Catholics could pledge an oath of allegiance to James I, King of England, without compromising their religious loyalty to the Pope, won Donne the favor of the King. In return for patronage from Sir Robert Drury of Hawstead, he wrote A Funerall Elegie (1610), on the death of Sir Robert's 15-year-old daughter Elizabeth. At this time, the Donnes took residence on Drury Lane. The two Anniversaries— An Anatomy of the World (1611) and Of the Progress of the Soul (1612) continued the patronage. Sir Robert encouraged the publication of the poems: The First Anniversary was published with the original elegy in 1611, and both were reissued with The Second Anniversary in 1612. Donne had refused to take Anglican orders in 1607, but King James persisted, finally announcing that Donne would receive no post or preferment from the King, unless in the church. In 1615, Donne reluctantly entered the ministry and was appointed a Royal Chaplain later that year. In 1616, he was appointed Reader in Divinity at Lincoln's Inn (Cambridge had conferred the degree of Doctor of Divinity on him two years earlier). Donne's style, full of elaborate metaphors and religious symbolism, his flair for drama, his wide learning and his quick wit soon established him as one of the greatest preachers of the era. Just as Donne's fortunes seemed to be improving, Anne Donne died, on 15 August, 1617, aged thirty-three, after giving birth to their twelfth child, a stillborn. Seven of their children survived their mother's death. Struck by grief, Donne wrote the seventeenth Holy Sonnet, â€Å"Since she whom I lov'd hath paid her last debt. According to Donne's friend and biographer, Izaak Walton, Donne was thereafter ‘crucified to the world'. Donne continued to write poetry, notably his Holy Sonnets (1618), but the time for love songs was over. In 1618, Donne went as chaplain with Viscount Doncaster in his embassy to the German princes. His Hymn to Christ at the Author's Last Going into Germany, written before the journey, is laden with apprehension of death. Donne returned to London in 1620, and was ap pointed Dean of Saint Paul's in 1621, a post he held until his death. Donne excelled at his post, and was at last financially secure. In 1623, Donne's eldest daughter, Constance, married the actor Edward Alleyn, then 58. Donne's private meditations, Devotions upon Emergent Occasions, written while he was convalescing from a serious illness, were published in 1624. The most famous of these is undoubtedly Meditation 17, which includes the immortal lines â€Å"No man is an island† and â€Å"never send to know for whom the bell tolls; It tolls for thee. † In 1624, Donne was made vicar of St Dunstan's-in-the-West. On March 27, 1625, James I died, and Donne preached his first sermon for Charles I. But for his ailing health, (he had mouth sores and had experienced significant weight loss) Donne almost certainly would have become a bishop in 1630. Obsessed with the idea of death, Donne posed in a shroud – the painting was completed a few weeks before his death, and later used to create an effigy. He also preached what was called his own funeral sermon, Death's Duel, just a few weeks before he died in London on March 31, 1631. The last thing Donne wrote just before his death was Hymne to God, my God, In my Sicknesse. Donne's monument, in his shroud, survived the Great Fire of London and can still be seen today at St. Paul's.

buy custom Customer Service Delivery in Starbucks Corporation essay

buy custom Customer Service Delivery in Starbucks Corporation essay Evaluation of Customer Service Delivery in Starbucks Corporation Starbucks Corporation is a leader in providing quality coffee to customers. Although it operates hundreds of product lines, the largest percentage of its profit comes from beverages. The corporation has an overwhelming presence and offers convenience. Moreover, its distribution strategy is unsophisticated and the corporation puts great efforts in making customers access to its products with ease and as well its locations avails more convenience to the customers (Evans and Hansen 4). The company has huge numbers of customers since most of its outlets are located in high- visibility, high-traffic and non-company retail channels. Nevertheless, Starbucks faces stiff competition from other similar corporations such as the McDonalds and Minneapolis-based Caribou Coffee. Despite this competition, Starbucks has always provides its customers with high-quality coffee (Roby 2). This paper therefore evaluates customer service delivery in the corporation. The success of this multinational corporation can be attributed to its focus on customer service delivery and customer satisfaction. To ensure that its customers derive utility from the consumption of its products, the corporation has through time been making good use of human resources in creating this customer-oriented value. The corporation has actually ensured that it has put in place a conducive atmosphere where any visiting customer will be in a position to relax, enjoy (to fullest) his/her social interactions as w ell as have ample time with others (Evans and Hansen 7). In so doing, the company has actually transformed the original norm of buying coffee just as a drink to a more attractive new-fashioned norm of having an experience of enjoying the drink. Owing to this fact therefore, any visiting customer would wish to stay for a longer period in the store since the environment is inviting. Another element that the cororation has looked into in ensuring that its customers get utility is the provision of quality coffee. Since all its stores are company-owned, the company is in a position to control the quality of services and products for the customers. Besides, Starbucks has engaged in controlling its supply chain by working hand in hand with coffee growers and has implemented the enforcement of coffee standards (Roby 8). This move makes customers to esteem Starbucks products. Starbucks has greatly invested in employee training and development for both old and new employees. Its workforce has continuously been trained of hard as well as soft skills with an objective of making the service delivery experience to customers pleasant. Through the soft skills, the workforce is better equipped to smoothly connect with customers. This equally enhances a friendly environment between the workforce and the visiting customers (Roby 11). Besides, the company has always ensured that the workforce is satisfied since this satisfaction among the employees leads to a higher level of customer satisfaction. The workforce is well remunerated and empowered and as thus feels that it is important part of the company. Through this, they feel appreciated and would also want to own the company; which as a result makes them offer excellent service to the customers. The corporation has also been involved in product innovation; making an expansion in its beverage menu as well as includ ing food items. This has seen tremendous changes in the companys customer demographics (Evans and Hansen 16). Markedly, however, the value preposition for Starbucks still remains the compelling factor. This is simply because the company places the customer and the service offered to the customer at the fore front. This value preposition- as earlier mentioned is not about coffee, but pertains to the experience of drinking coffee in Starbucks stores and at the same time integrating the product with the related emotional benefits. On the contrary, there havve been indications that the level of customer satisfaction has been of late declining. Nevertheless, this does not suggest that the quality of the services offered has declined. This might have been as a result of changes in the customers expectation, issues in marketing or even other forces from the external environment (Evans and Hansen 20). The corporations customer base in the recent past has been growing and statistics has shown that most of those less satisfied customers are the new ones or who it is their very first time to visit the stores. Owing to this fact therefore, it can be concluded that service delivery has not at its least been compromised; but that these new customers might be having relatively higher expectations since the established customers have a better opinion of the corporation (Roby 24). However, a possible reason of the declining customer service delivery could be the companys product innovation and retail expansion strategy. Initially, this business giant had set standards for its customers at a high level via its value preposition; of which it used to meet. However, following the companys strategy of product innovation and retail expansion - which ran hand in hand with the customization of drinks - negative effects were experienced in the atmosphere, service delivery and coffee quality. All these led to the decline in customer satisfaction, besides changing the image of the brand (Roby 30). With reference to the above discussion and more especially the reason behind declining customer service delivery and customer satisfaction, Starbucks ought to make a redefinition of its marketing strategies in which it will research and keenly evaluate the needs, wants and perceptions of its changing customer base. Moreover, the company is obliged to evaluate innovative sales in order for it to determine the impact of labor costs that will help tell whether or not sales prop the costs. Managing the increased customer base requires only fine-tuning of operations. Buy custom Customer Service Delivery in Starbucks Corporation essay

Pulwama attack Essays - Articles, Religion, Agnosticism, Freethought

Pulwama attack Essays - Articles, Religion, Agnosticism, Freethought We, Indians, are living up in the back-drop of looming black cloud in the post colonialism psychological landscape with hues of political, cultural, religious, and to my mind even philosophical absurdities being played down in the field of personal and collective thoughts. The Pulwama attack is a kind periodic climax in the never-ending politico-military script played out in Indian political stage. The most deplorable of the things coming out of such eruptions are the blows those inflict upon the near and dear ones of the people killed - military and civilian. It should be well to remember that those died, civilian as well as military, in reality, belong to poor families. Monetary compensation is likely to be of great help for the bereaved families, but nothing brings back the dead father, brother, son, friend, lover, etc. as the case may be. The loss of properties and loss of army morale and diplomatic points from such incidents come off as secondary level fall out, and are very muc h redeemable with corrective actions. Any attack on security forces in war fare and quasi war fare situations is a win-win situation for the government of the country, more correctly the party constructing the government. Firstly, the blame for such heinous act, with all and sundry adjectives attached, could be easily and conveniently placed atop the shoulder of the enemy soldiers of the enemy country and a perceived enemy community, and the government cleans up its hands. Secondly, equally crucially, such attacks give off tremendous potential opportunities for the ruling party - more so when the party is baptized upon majoritarianism and hatred based post-nationalism - as rich dividend could be reaped from such happenings, and how much reach depends upon how well or how badly the political drums are beaten by the minion media. The perceived enemy community, as is seen post-Pulwama, being attacked in orchestrated moves to score some brownie points in duels against un-armed, frightened, and cornered opponents. In essence some children of Mother India are attacking some other children of the same mother, with the cry of praise for mother India - Bande Mataram and Bharat Maata ki Jay in their leaps!! Some parasitic politicians are giving calls to boycott Kashmris!! Where is patriotism and where is nationalism in the chain of events? Look at AFSPA; the army is given free hands to deal with one segment of citizens of the country -cut to an army officer threatening mothers of Kashmiris for the perceived misdeeds perpetrated by their children. But when it comes to teach good lessons to Pak army and ISIS, the government comes out with list of diplomatic and other constraints. Thus the army is given open hand to punish Indian citizens and the same army's hands are being tied while punishing enemies of the country. Any level of human sense does not consider tigers, lions, deers, and other wild animals as more useful to human beings than cows are. But surprisingly laws prohibit their killings, but not of cows! A civilized human being seems absurd to be seen in a queue in-front of a meat shop with killed and skin-ripped off goats hanged upside down with blood smeared upon chosen parts of their dead bodies marking 21st century meat shop marketing strategy! The same person, whom we saw in the queue, comments against killing of some stray dogs by some lunatics! Where is animal welfare? Where does it exist in real sense? Not in the files of bureaucrats of course. Why such discrimination between animals when it comes to protecting rights of animals from being killed? On what basis the society decides that life of a crocodile is more important than life of a cow or for that matter a goat? Secularism, in essence, means non-adherence to any religious dictum. This is a bubble of high-value thoughts and so bursts occasionally. Secularism can only exist where religion is not heard of, and certainly India does not fall in that category. Every religious person thinks his/her religion is the best, and that is quite rational to think too, else why should one adhere to and participate in particular religious practices. Religion is codified with peoples' identity. So one can